1In india, the formal urologist .^[14] This is a three years course postmaster's and includes a thesis and a mandatory publication. This degree is awarded after completing MBBS (4 and half years plus a one-year rotatory internship) and MS (Mastery of surgery) in general surgery (three years course). Till now two Universities Tribhuvan University and Kathmandu University as well as two Autonomous institutes BP Koirala Institute of health sciences and National Academy of Medical Sciences ( Bir Hospital) run the MCh Urology programme.^{19, http://null20} This degree is equivalent to Clinical Ph.D. and called "Chikitsa Bidhyabaridhi" by Tribhuvan University ( Government University) and is considered to be the highest degree among the surgical discipline degrees. Besides Urology, Cardiothoracic and Vascular Surgery, Surgical Gastroenterology, Plastic Surgery and Neurosurgery MCh programs are also run in the country.

Subdisciplines[edit]

As a medical discipline that involves the care of many organs and physiological systems, urology can be broken down into several subdisciplines. At many larger academic centers and university hospitals that excel in patient care and clinical research, urologists often specialize in a particular sub-discipline.

Endourology[edit]

Endourology is the branch of urology that deals with the closed manipulation of the urinary tract.^[15] It has lately grown to include all minimally invasive urologic surgical procedures. As opposed to open surgery, endourology is performed using small cameras and instruments inserted into the urinary tract. Transurethral surgery has been the cornerstone of endourology. Most of the urinary tract can be reached via the urethra, enabling prostate surgery, surgery of tumors of the urothelium, stone surgery, and simple urethral and urethral procedures. Recently, the addition of laparoscopy and robotics has further subdivided this branch of urology.

Laparoscopy[edit]

Laparoscopy is a rapidly evolving branch of urology and has replaced some open surgical procedures. Robot-assisted surgery of the prostate, kidney, and ureter has been expanding this field. Today, many prostatectomies in the United States are carried out by so-called robotic assistance. This has created controversy, however, as robotics greatly increases the cost of surgery, and the benefit for the patient may or may not be proportional to the extra cost. Moreover, the current (2011) market situation for robotic equipment is a de facto monopoly of one publicly held corporation^[16] which further fuels the cost-effectiveness controversy.

Urologic oncology[edit]

Urologic oncology concerns the surgical treatment of malignant genitourinary diseases such as cancer of the prostate, adrenal glands, bladder, kidneys, ureters, testicles, and penis, as well as the skin and subcutaneous tissue and muscle and fascia of those areas (that particular subspecialty overlaps with dermatological oncology and related areas of oncology). The treatment of genitourinary cancer is managed by either a urologist or an oncologist, depending on the treatment type (surgical or medical). Most urologic oncologists in Western countries use minimally invasive techniques (laparoscopy or endourology, robotic-assisted surgery) to manage urologic cancers amenable to surgical management.

Neurourology[edit]

Neurourology concerns nervous system control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions causing abnormal urination. Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and spinal cord injury can disrupt the lower urinary tract and result in conditions such as urinary incontinence, detrusor overactivity, urinary retention, and detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Urodynamic studies play an important diagnostic role in neurourology. Therapy for the nervous system disorders include clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly used therapies such as sacral neuromodulation. Less marked neurological abnormalities can cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent urination (e.g. painful bladder syndrome also known as interstitial cystitis).

Pediatric urology[edit]

Pediatric urology concerns urologic disorders in children. Such disorders include cryptorchidism (undescended testes), congenital abnormalities of the genitourinary tract, enuresis, underdeveloped genitalia (due to delayed growth or delayed puberty, often an endocrinological problem), and vesicoureteral reflux.

Andrology[edit]

Main article: Andrology

Andrology is the medical specialty that deals with male health, particularly relating to the problems of the male reproductive system and urological problems that are unique to men such as prostate cancer, male fertility problems, and surgery of the male reproductive system. It is the counterpart to gynecology, which deals with medical issues that are specific to female health, especially reproductive and urologic health.

Reconstructive urology[edit]

Reconstructive urology is a highly specialized field of male urology that restores both structure and function to the genitourinary tract. Prostate procedures, full or partial hysterectomies, trauma (auto accidents, gunshot wounds, industrial accidents, straddle injuries, etc.), disease, obstructions, blockages (e.g., urethral strictures), and occasionally, childbirth can necessitate reconstructive surgery. The urinary bladder, ureters (the tubes that lead from the kidneys to the urinarybladder) and genitalia is other examples of reconstructive urology.

Female urology[edit]

Main article: Female urology

Female urology is a branch of urology dealing with overactive bladder, pelvic organ prolapse, and urinary incontinence. Many of these physicians also practice neurourology and reconstructive urology mentioned above. Female urologists (many of whom are men) complete a 1–3-year fellowship after completion of a 5–6-year urology residency.^[17] Thorough knowledge of the female pelvic floor together with an intimate understanding of the physiology and pathology of voiding is necessary to diagnose and treat these disorders. Depending on the cause of the individual problem, medical or surgical treatment can be the solution. Their field of practice heavily overlaps with that of urogynecologists, physicians in a sub-discipline of gynecology, who have done a three-year fellowship after a four-year OBGYN residency.^[17]